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Vietnam Related Panels and Paper Abstracts at the Association for Asian Studies Conference 1995
Session 12: Situating the Moment in Southeast Asia: Four Case Studies
on Cultural Politics and Contemporary Social History
Organizer and Chair: Kenneth M. George, Harvard University
Discussant: Rita Kipp, Kenyon College
National and transnational forces continue to bring about obvious and
significant change in the contemporary sociocultural landscape of Southeast
Asia. This panel explores some of the less obvious political dilemmas,
complexities, and compromises surrounding interpretive work when matters
are anything but settled and viewpoints are kept in constant flux and
negotiation. What is at stake as people struggle for control over images,
objects, ideas, memories, values, and the means of cultural representation?
How do these same cultural forms elude positioned attempts to hold them
down? How do people confront or take advantage of the uncertain and
the unexpected? And how might ethnographers capture and be captured
by the unfolding cultural politics of contemporary Southeast Asia? Panelists
will discuss the discourse of virtue in Vietnamese village politics;
the life histories of a Toraja family scattered across Indonesia and
Europe; reflections on the trauma of places that are no more-Cambodian
refugee camps in Thailand; and the biography of an abstract canvas by
Indonesian painter A. D. Pirous, from the time it was first exhibited
in 1968 to its recent appropriation by a critical art history.
Local Value and Official Ideology: Defining Virtue in Contemporary
Northern Viet Nam
Shaun Kingsley Malarney, Harvard Academy for International and Area
Studies
Similar to the Confucian state that preceded it, the revolutionary
socialist state in Viet Nam engaged in a concerted campaign to create
and popularize official definitions of ethics and virtue. Immortalized
in Ho Chi Minh's revolutionary adage 'Industry, thrift, incorruptability,
and righteousness. Public spirit and impartiality,' the socialist state
attempted to replace local constructions of ethics and virtue with an
official canon that directed people's loyalties toward the state and
revolution. The popular acceptance of this canon, however, was problematic
as local definitions of virtue and moral responsibility oftentimes remained
salient in social practice. Using the example of a commune election
in Hanoi province as a case study, this paper will examine the tensions
and consequences of the interaction between official definitions of
virtue and local systems of value during the cooperative period (1959-1986).
Then, focusing on the period since the 1986 introduction of the reform
policies in Viet Nam, the paper will further explore the manner in which
the turn to 'market socialism,' with its attendant endorsement of individual
production and wealth accumulation, is further transforming both official
and local notions of what is ethical and what is virtuous. As will be
shown throughout, the dynamic and complex discourse on virtue in contemporary
northern Viet Nam has been profoundly influenced by the at times complementary,
at times contentious, interaction between local values and the agenda
of the state.
Session 13: Gender and Revolution in Viet Nam: Bullets, Buddhas, Or
Ballots
Organizer: Sandra C. Taylor, University of Utah
Chair and Discussant: Thi Thanh Nguyen, Nguoi Viet Review
This panel addresses several issues of contemporary importance in Viet
Nam in the period from 1954 to the present. Each deals with gender,
self-perceptions, but the papers differ according to the discipline
of the participant. They have in common the theme of the relationship
between gender, ideology, and ongoing debates within Viet Nam over what
was, to the winners, a revolution.
The paper by Sandra C. Taylor considers the so-called long-haired warriors
of the years 1957-75: their interaction with male combatants (Americans
and Vietnamese), their self-perception, and the impact of communist
ideology on their determination to win the revolution. The paper by
Miriam Frenier seeks to understand the role of Buddhism in contemporary
Viet Nam as it pertains to women's belief system and freedom to worship.
The paper by Linda Yarr concerns a contemporary issue: to what degree
do laws written for and about women in fact give them legal rights?
All papers are part of ongoing projects and should be considered as
works in progress.
Women Revolutionaries in Vietnam: Ideology, Tradition, and Necessity
Sandra C. Taylor, University of Utah
Women played a significant role in Vietnam's successful socialist
revolution. This paper seeks to explore the ideological foundations
of their support for revolutionary activity, especially in the context
of traditional Confucian prescribed roles.
Second, the paper will examine the nature of women revolutionaries,
the roles they played, and the way in which men regarded them. Their
exploits as liaison operatives, intelligence operators, nurses, cooks,
and fighters will be touched upon, using as source material oral histories
conducted in Vietnam as well as relevant secondary material.
Third, the paper will conclude with a comment on Vietnam's honoring
of its women heroines. It is the author's belief that once victory was
achieved, women resumed their traditional roles as wives and mothers,
subordinate to men. New roles they took, such as physicians, were not
particularly honored by the new regime, and they were not allowed to
take roles in the government, with one notable exception. Rather, they
were relegated to power within the Women's Union, an organization that
had operated since 1930. Although powerful, this organization deals
only with females and does not attempt to compete in the male sphere.
Quan Am, Women and Vietnam's "Mother Buddha"
Miriam D. Frenier, University of Minnesota, Morris
The Buddhist faith is a complex belief system in which women have
always played a role. As it was accepted in Vietnam, gradually a female
concept of a goddess mother, the special protector of women, emerged.
This female figure, whose role in the original Buddha legend is vague,
has emerged as a potent force in Vietnam, which allowed the re emergence
of Buddhism as part of its opening in 1985.
This paper seeks to outline Vietnamese Buddhism, to define what a Lady
Buddha is, to explore the origins of the Lady Buddha in the Vietnamese
belief system, and to unravel the manner in which it functions in socialist
Vietnam today. The paper explains the function of the Boddhisattva and
shows that the Lady Buddha is viewed as a Boddhisattva, sharing gender
traits that are both female and male. Source materials include oral
interviews conducted in the Saigon area of Vietnam, as well as books
written by contemporary Vietnamese authors.
Legal Supports for Gender Equality in Vietnam: Past Gains and Present
Prospects
Linda J. Yarr, The American University, Washington, DC
Since the struggle for independence, the leadership of the Socialist
Republic of Vietnam has professed its commitment to realizing equality
between the sexes. One yardstick of the seriousness of this commitment
is the series of constitutional and legal provisions designed to support
equal treatment of women in the home, work place, and arena of public
life. At the same time, responding to strong cultural norms, protective
legislation and family policies have been enacted to secure the welfare
of women as mothers.
The rapid changes brought about by the new economic renovation policies
have both opened certain opportunities for women and presented new constraints
and challenges to the implementation of the state's goals in achieving
gender equality. This paper will analyze the development of legal provisions
on behalf of women and investigate the current trends that are working
both for and against the official goals.
Session 93: Environment and Development in Vietnam
Part One (See Session 113)
Organizer: Michael R. DiGregorio, University of California, Los Angeles
Chair: A. Terry Rambo, East West Center
Discussant: Neil L. Jamieson, Winrock International
Environment and Development in Vietnam
A. Terry Rambo, East-West Center
The recent lifting of the U.S. embargo was accompanied by a virtual
flood of speculation in the media about Vietnam's development potential.
Most appraisals were quite optimistic with some suggesting that the
country will be Asia's next miracle economy, an instant "NIC"
needing only an infusion of U.S. investment capital to achieve overnight
prosperity. Such hyperbolic claims are both misleading and potentially
harmful. They are misleading in that they downplay or wholly fail to
take into account the many difficulties that Vietnam must overcome while
overstating the factors, particularly the country's supposedly vast
treasury of unexploited natural resources, that favor rapid economic
development. Such claims are potentially harmful in that they divert
attention from the need to solve the pressing problems of poverty, overpopulation,
environmental degradation and decay of the administrative system. To
the extent that such claims are accepted as true by the Vietnamese people,
they may contribute to rising expectations of rapid improvement in living
conditions that may lead to widespread public discontent when reality
fails to conform to dreams.
This paper draws on fieldwork conducted on human environment interactions
in the Red River Delta, the Midlands, the northwestern Highlands, and
the Mekong Delta. It presents a deliberately contrarian view of Vietnam's
development prospects, emphasizing the many threats to long-term sustainable
development.
The Human Ecology of Sustainable Land Use in the Red River Delta
of Vietnam
Aran Patanothai, Khon Kaen University, Thailand
The Red River Delta of Vietnam is an area of dense human settlement
and intensive land use. In the past, villagers have been able to increase
production sufficient to cope with increased population. Whether further
increases in population can be supported by the land and whether current
high levels of production can be sustained are questions which have
yet to be answered This paper attempts to answer these questions in
the specific context of an agricultural village, Nguyen Xa, in the densely
settled Red River delta province of Thai Binh. It draws upon fieldwork
jointly conducted in 1991 and 1992 by researchers from the Southeast
Asian Agroecosystem Network (SUAN), The Program on Environment at the
East West Center, and the Center for Natural Resources Management and
Environmental Studies at Hanoi University.
The results of this research revealed that land use in Nguyen Xa was
intensive. Almost all the cultivated land was devoted to the production
of the village's two crops of rice per year. In addition, about 40 percent
of the village's agricultural land produced a third crop in the dry
winter season. With the availability of irrigation water, the use of
high yielding varieties, and the heavy application of manure and chemical
inputs, crop yields were quite high. Rice yields of 6 7 tons per hectare
were quite common.
Though production relied heavily on manual labor of villagers, it could
not be characterized as backward by any stretch of the imagination.
The agricultural system of Nguyen Xa village was technically sophisticated.
An outstanding feature in this regard was the elaborate forms of nutrient
recycling employed by the villagers. Just about every nutrient possible
was captured and recycled to the field one way or another. Though analysis
of soils revealed a potentially debilitating accumulation of potassium
and a gradual depletion of phosphorous, land thus appeared to be managed
sustainably.
Despite these past successes, research indicated that the agricultural
potential of village lands may have already been reached. A simulation
of rice yields showed that farmers in Nguyen Xa were already achieving
80 percent of their crop's genetic potential and that further yield
increases were not likely. Expansion of the area sown in a third crop
was also unlikely.
To compensate for the limits reached in agricultural production, villagers
have been seeking additional income through subsidiary activities. Reliance
on these activities has been increasing in recent years and has generated
good incomes to the villagers. With little room left for improvement
in agriculture, subsidiary activities may be the only long term means
of coping with the pressures of an increasing population.
The Social and Environmental Impacts of Development in the Da River
Watershed of Northern Vietnam
Le Trong Cuc, Hanoi University
The Da (Black) River watershed encompasses an area circumscribed
by the northwest to southeast running summits of the Son La and Hoang
Lien Son ranges in northwestern Vietnam. It is an isolated area of strongly
dissected river valleys and limestone mountains. The population of the
watershed, 973,282 persons in 1989, is sparsely settled and diverse.
Although 23 ethnic groups live in the watershed, only five of these,
Thai (42 percent), Kinh (lowland Vietnamese; 18 percent), Hmong (17.5
percent), Muong (9.5 percent) and Dzao (4.8 percent), comprise the overwhelming
majority.
Each of these ethnic groups occupies a distinct agroecological zone.
The Thai, Muong, Tay and Kinh practice irrigated rice cultivation in
the fertile valleys within the watershed. The Hmong, Dzao, and Kho Mu
people practice sedentary shifting cultivation on the high slopes. In
addition, many Kinh migrants raise industrial crops on state farms in
the more accessible areas and the highland plateaus found in Moc Chau,
Mai Son and Phong Tho districts.
The Hoa Binh hydroelectric dam, which has created a reservoir covering
200 square kilometers at depths of 115 meters, is the single largest
project in the watershed. The rising waters of the reservoir have forced
the relocation of 58,000 people belonging to 9,305 households in nine
districts along its 30 kilometer length and flooded 11,000 hectares
of agricultural land, including 4,000 hectares of irrigated rice fields.
The loss of lowland agricultural land has been matched by a loss in
upland forest as displaced persons migrated upward with the rising waters.
The Ministry of Forestry estimates that 2,000 hectares of forest are
lost each year as the former valley farmers turn to upland swiddening.
The erosion caused by these practices has reduced the life expectancy
of the Hoa Binh hydroelectric dam from 300 to 80 years.
A second, larger dam is now being planned for construction at Son La,
also on the Da river. This dam, which would flood 58,277 hectares, the
majority forest land, under a maximum depth of 265 meters of water,
would force the relocation of 120,411 people.
Under the impact of such massive changes in the physical and social
landscape of the Da river watershed, one has to question the significance
of the various agriculture and forestry programs established by the
state and non governmental organizations. While valuable in their own
right, when compared to the large scale displacement brought about by
dam construction, these efforts provide insufficient compensation. An
alternative approach would examine the benefits of dam construction
compared to other forms of energy against the likely impact of such
construction on the environment.
Gendering the Environment: Resource Utilization in the Highland
District of Da Bac, Vietnam
Nghiem Phuong Tuyen, Hanoi University
Gender has a profound and complex influence on resource identification
and use. Gender work and gender knowledge of the environment, seen through
the differing perspectives of men and women, affect the way each identifies,
values, appropriates and uses resources. In much of the world, women
have responsibility for growing and collecting food. medicines, fuel,
and housing materials. In other words, they are often active in producing
or collecting for household subsistence. These activities regularly
expose women to primary resources-water, wood, land, wildlife-thus giving
them an acute awareness to negative changes in the quality of those
resources locally. Men, on the other hand. are typically more active
in commercial agriculture than women and more often employ unsustainable
methods of utilizing resources.
This paper will draw on fieldwork conducted in Da Bac district, Hoa
Binh province in the northwest uplands of Vietnam. It will discuss the
roles of women in Da Bac as it pertains to the use of land, forests
and forest products, water sources and labor.
Session 113: Environment and Development in Vietnam
Part Two (See Session 93)
Organizer: Michael R. DiGregorio, University of California, Los Angeles
Chair: Le Trong Cuc, Hanoi University
Discussant: A. Terry Rambo, East West Center
National Development and Landscape Formation in Vietnam
Jeffrey Romm, University of California, Berkeley
Economic growth in Vietnam, as in other places, affects the intensity
and distribution of activity over space and the level and distribution
of well being among people. Such impacts change the qualities of environmental
assets, for better and for worse, and the social capacities to invest
in or conserve natural as well as human resources. This paper reports
on a study of relations between development policy, spatial growth patterns,
and related impacts on the quality, intensity and distribution of activity
and environmental assets. Understanding these relations may help to
achieve development policies that incorporate concerns about social
distributions and their environmental consequences. Using data drawn
primarily from Vinh Phu province, the study also identifies means by
which rural people seek to control, manage or compensate for developmental
forces that modify the circumstances in which they live.
The Environmental Impacts of Rapid Industrial Transformation in
Vietnam
Dara J. O'Rourke, University of California, Berkeley
With recent government reforms and the lifting of the U.S. trade
embargo, Vietnam is currently experiencing a significant transformation
of the industrial sector. While industrial development will likely bring
benefits for the general population, there is significant potential
for adverse environmental and health impacts of industrial expansion.
Already in fact, industrial development, involving both changes in domestic
industry and growth of foreign direct investment, is having significant
impacts on the people and environment of Vietnam. Vietnam's trajectory
of industrialization-which is impacted by historical circumstances,
state policies, international pressures, conditions and constraints
at the firm level, and social pressures-is creating unique problems
for development planners. Attempting to understand the process of industrial
transformation and the constraints on specific actors involved in industrialization
is a critical first step in developing appropriate policy responses
for protecting the environment during rapid industrial development.
This paper reports on a study of environmental impacts of industrial
transformation in Vietnam. The paper will begin by introducing some
of the primary factors driving industrialization in Vietnam, the current
development model (and underlying theories) proposed by the Vietnamese
government, and the current geography of industrialization. Current
production technology levels, and the resulting environmental impacts
of production, will be described for two case study industries. The
paper will also evaluate institutional structures being developed to
respond to environmental problems.
The paper will then discuss some policy options for de-coupling environmental
impacts (such as pollution levels) from industrial development. Opportunities
for pollution prevention and more environmentally sound industrial development
will be explored. Finally, government goals and activities aimed at
balancing economic growth, environmental quality, and equity issues
will be discussed.
Design and Reality in French Plans for the Development of Dalat
Robert R. Reed, University of California, Berkeley
During the heyday of imperialism in South and Southeast Asia, Westerners
founded and maintained more than 125 costly hill stations situated at
elevations between 350 and 3,000 meters above sea level. Conceived as
sanitaria for colonists, colonial administrators and their families
suffering from debilitating endemic illnesses and epidemic diseases,
most highland health resorts rapidly evolved into highly segregated
social enclaves and recreation centers reserved for European elites.
Some strategically situated hill stations, having emerged as growth
poles in the rugged mountain realms, were gradually transformed into
multifunctional hubs of administration, education, transportation, commerce,
agricultural development, forestry, and mining. The foremost of these,
tropical Asia's 'summer capitals,' became the periodic seats of western
imperium as national and provincial governments moved to the highlands
during the heat of monsoonal Asia's dry season.
By the 1930s, Dalat, a French colonial hill station in the Central Highlands
of Vietnam, became renowned as one of the finest mountain resorts and
administrative complexes in Asia. Established late in the colonial era
(c. 1900), its founders and developers explicitly patterned France's
premiere station d'altitude after the models of Simla (India), Buitenzorg
(Java), Nuwara Eliya (Sri Lanka), and Baguio (Philippines). Although
conceived as an exclusive recreational preserve for Europeans, its long-term
design wisely called for and anticipated the conversion of Dalat into
a diversified urban center with functional linkages throughout the southern
Central Highlands of Vietnam.
At least five urban plans (Champoudrey, Hebrard, Pineau, Lagisquet and
Decoux) were drawn to orchestrate the development of Dalat. These designs,
which adapted principles of European and American urban planning to
the specific conditions of the colonial highlands, included spatial
organization by function areas and the separation of non-compatible
uses, a general layout intended to promote environmental harmony, segregation
of ethnic communities, and comprehensive zoning regulations. With the
expulsion of the French from Indochina, the Vietnamese began transforming
Dalat into a center for domestic tourism and a key secondary city in
the highlands, a place it holds today.
This paper will explore the utility of these plans in directing the
growth of Dalat, paying particular attention to the pressures placed
upon the city through internal migration, domestic tourism and more
recent development of Dalat as an international destination.
The City as Resource: Recycling and the Peasant Economy of Northern
Vietnam
Michael R. DiGregorio, University of California, Los Angeles
Scavenging and junk buying have frequently appeared in development
literature as symbols of urban environmental deterioration, human degradation
and lost hopes. Beyond these images, however, lies a reality in which
these disparaged occupations provide refuge for the unemployed, a secure
economic niche for particular ethnic, caste, or territorial communities,
material inputs for local industries, commodities for export, and a
means of diverting large amounts of recoverable materials from landfills
and composting plants.
This paper, which applies a political ecology framework to the analysis
of scavenging and junk buying in Hanoi, Vietnam, suggests that these
two occupations are best understood in the dialectic processes of socio-ecologic
change. The large-scale withdrawal of the state from its former redistributional
role in favor of market allocation has prompted changes in both the
physical arrangement of space-farms, forests, and cities-and the social
structures that, in turn, adapt and adapt to them. Communes and cooperatives
are giving way to household enterprises and capitalist corporations.
Land, which can now be privately held, has leap-frogged in value, prompting
a reorganization of urban and rural space along the lines of most profitable
use. The need for cash income to purchase goods and services formerly
provided by the state has also worked its way across the landscape as
government agencies engage in money-making endeavors, such as the operation
of guest houses, to supplement their state budgets and rural families
migrate, either permanently or on a temporary basis, in search of income
earning work.
Scavenging and junk buying provides a wide window into these processes
of socio-ecologic change as they are occurring at this rare moment in
Vietnamese history. Though not unique in any sense, these two occupations
bridge rural and urban lifespace, linking territorial communities in
cycles of urban and agricultural work. Nearly half of all those employed
in scavenging and junk buying, roughly 3,000 people, are members of
farming families who use work in Hanoi to supplement their agricultural
incomes. The majority, or about 2,500 people, come from a single district,
Xuan Thuy district in Nam Ha province, approximately 120 kilometers
from Hanoi. Residents of Xuan Thuy rely on relatives and village mates
living in Hanoi, many of whom are the sons and daughters of Xuan Thuy
natives who came to work for the Sanitation Company in the 1930s, to
provide housing and training. Change in the organization of agricultural
production combined with increasing income needs and the opening of
economic space, have set conditions under which the urban side of the
Xuan Thuy community could offer work to their rural counterparts and
the rural side could be willing to engage in low-status urban work.
Despite the apparent economic and ecologic benefits of scavenging and
junk buying, the system as it currently appears is threatened from a
number of sources. To address these threats, recyclers need the social
and political standing that would allow them to stake out a position
in society and evolve with changing conditions.
Session 121: Individual Papers: Southeast Asia
Organizer: John R. Bowen, Washington University
Chair: Michael Aung-Thwin, Northern Illinois University
The Quest for Oil in Vietnam
Robert Cambria, Cambria Consultants
From the Bay of Tonkin to the South China sea, Vietnam is potentially
rich in oil and gas. Interest in Vietnam's energy resources grew when
in 1974 Royal Dutch Shell and Mobil struck oil in the White Tiger field
off the coast of the then republic of South Vietnam. After liberation,
in a joint venture with the USSR, more potential sources of oil and
gas were found even in the Red River Delta.
Owing to Vietnam's war in Cambodia and lack of technology and wherewithal
to exploit its energy resources, Hanoi could not begin developing its
energy sector. However, with doi moi, economic reforms have attracted
capital from abroad to speed up the country's economic development.
Oil and gas resources are the area which draws most foreign investment,
and according to Hanoi's own projections such infusions of capital will
accelerate rapid economic growth.
For foreign oil companies, public and private, in the region and Europe
and the USA, Vietnam is a source of reserves which will lessen reliance
on OPEC countries. For its ASEAN neighbors assisting exploitation of
such reserves allows them to tie Vietnam into an economic network which
brings Hanoi's interests into harmony with theirs. Yet, such potential
riches are a source of tension with China, its powerful neighbor to
the north, whose presence has since millennia defined the notion of
what is Vietnam.
Oil and gas have a further attraction for modernization of one of the
world's poorest countries, as well as to strengthen the hold of one
of the few, remaining Communist parties in power in the world.
Population Growth and Sustainable Development Challenges During
Socio-Economic Transition in Vietnam
Nguyen Minh Thang, University of Washington
Even though national production has achieved remarkable results
in recent years, the high population growth rate of around 2.2%-2.3%
per year since 1990, with TFR around 3.8 children per women, is one
of reasons eliminating an improvement in the standard of living. The
environment and development in a number of various aspects-economics,
health care, education, etc.-has been heavily pressured by a speedily
increasing population.
In turn, the socio-economic development during the Vietnam's tremendous
transition and new world order has significantly influenced demands
for children in Vietnamese society in many directions.
High fertility levels and attitudes on demands for more children, mainly
in rural areas and more highly in the Mekong river delta in south Vietnam,
showed little hope in terms of the considerable fertility decline in
coming years, even though the family planning program would be improved
greatly.
That does not rule out the need for effort regarding the family planning
program. Moreover, the population and family planing program needs to
be improved and focused on generating further awareness and the attitudes
of people regarding the preferred number of children and family size
as soon as possible, so that the population structure could be positively
changed by the year 2000, in order to create a fundamental to remain
a maximum level of fertility decline after 2000.
In addition, based on the updated survey data and prospective for changes
in terms of demand for children in Vietnam, I have produced the updated
projection for population growth up to the year 2000. This study also
address the national policy and main measures to achieve the target
of reducing TFR down to 3 children by the year of 2000 and to a replacement
level by 2015.
Role of the State: The Case of the Vietnamese Textile and Garment
Industry Since the Late 1980s
Ngoc (Angie) Tran, University of Southern California
Recent writings on Vietnam have been claiming optimistically that
Vietnam has the potential to become yet another tiger in the Asian Pacific
region. It seems natural that given the success of the East Asian Newly-Industrialized
Countries (NICs), Vietnam would try to learn if it can replicate that
experience.
Given specific circumstances in Vietnamese political economy which is
shifting from a very high level of state intervention (a centrally-planned
economy) to a lower level (a more market-oriented system), the relevant
questions to pose are: to what extent can the Vietnam state learn from
the experience of the East Asian NICs? Given the role of the "developmental
state" in these economies, can the Vietnamese state play a similar
role? What are the necessary conditions for effective state intervention
in a more open socialist economy?
In order to address these questions, this paper will examine the relevance
of the developmental state framework to the case of Vietnam. Specifically,
it will use examples from the Vietnamese Textile and Garment Industry
(VTGI) to illustrate the arguments and key issues faced by the Vietnam
state in making the transition since the late 1980s. The VTGl is chosen
because: first, it is a major job creator and a foreign exchange earner,
and it has the potential to be integrated with the rest of the economy;
second, the VTGI fits into the overall pattern of the textile and garment
industry's global sourcing, and hence can demonstrate how well Vietnam
faces new challenges.
In terms of organization, this paper will first present the developmental
state framework and specifically the model of the East Asian NICs. Second,
it will apply this model to Vietnam, and discuss to what extent the
Vietnam state can learn from the experience of the East Asian NICs.
Finally, this paper will provide an illustration of the role of the
Vietnam state, from the developmental state framework, in the case of
the Vietnamese Textile and Garment Industry.