Worlds of Modernity: The Near East Here the focus is on Turkey because of the availability of material in our collections from the early 20th century. Modernization in the Middle East generally began with modernization of the military along European lines. In the 19th century, Western military uniforms were adopted. The need to print educational materials for military schools was frequently a factor in the introduction of printing presses in countries that used Arabic script—a script particularly difficult to set in type. Gradually, often in association with travel for pleasure or education, the upper classes began to desire and acquire foreign luxury goods. At a surface level, European furnishings, manners and tastes all became status symbols, even when a sense remained that traditional cultural values were superior. Unlike other countries of the Middle East, where it took much longer for modernization to percolate through all levels of society, in Turkey, modernization was rapidly imposed in the 1920s by a series of legal acts. In 1923, Turkey was declared a Republic. In 1924, the Caliphate was abolished and a constitution was adopted. Traditional religious schools were closed and Islamic (shariat) law was abolished. In 1925, the fez was outlawed. Wearing Western style clothing was encouraged and veiling was discouraged. In 1926, a civil code based on various European codes was adopted. Civil marriage was introduced and polygamy became illegal. In 1928, Turkey was declared a secular state. The Latin alphabet was adopted in place of Arabic script, which separated following generations from traditional culture. In 1934, women were given the vote and the right to hold office. In little more than 10 years, Turkey had moved from an autocratic sultanate a secular state with political structures and laws paralleling those of Europe. In the later 20th century, in response to perceived political and economic inequalities, parts of the populace of many Middle Eastern countries have reexamined traditional values. Although that is not the focus of this exhibit, it should be noted that there has been some return to more traditional garb and customs. That change does not necessarily indicate a complete reversion to earlier social roles.